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Definition of Academic Arguments
What Is an Academic Argument?
An academic argument represents your perspective, your assertion, or your stance on a given topic.
This viewpoint, assertion, or stance contributes to the ongoing discussion surrounding your topic, offering your readers a particular position, outlook, and/or viewpoint on the subject.
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An academic argument is also firmly rooted in research, often referred to as “evidence-based.” This means that you must substantiate your argument with findings from sources you have consulted. Nursing Essay Writing – Academic Arguments.
What an Academic Argument Is Not…
An academic argument is not a confrontation, a conflict, or a negative confrontation. It is also not driven by emotions or solely based on one individual’s opinion.
Overview of Academic Arguments
While reflection and summarization have their place in academic writing, your papers must be grounded in analysis and critique. Being able to recognize a strong argument in the materials you read can help you become more proficient at constructing your own arguments when you write. The following sections will guide you in comprehending and developing a robust argument in a paper and moving beyond basic summarization.
Understanding Arguments
Developing Arguments
Comparing & Contrasting
Avoiding Logical Fallacies
Addressing Assumptions
1. Understanding Arguments Analysis
Analysis, as defined by Facione (2010), is the capability “to identify the intended and actual inferential relationships among statements, questions, concepts, descriptions, or other forms of representation intended to express belief, judgment, experiences, reasons, information, or opinions” (p. 6). The process of analysis involves dissecting a piece of work, examining the individual elements separately, and understanding how they relate to each other. The ultimate goal is to comprehend the meaning of the work as a whole.
Written content is composed of words forming sentences, which in turn create paragraphs, and so on (Kurland, 2002). Well-written texts are logically structured, and your approach to analyzing them will depend on your goals and the main themes that interest you as a reader. For instance, a psychologist’s analysis of a work on mental health will differ from that of a psychiatrist or theologian. The first may focus on behavioral aspects, the second on clinical or biological factors, and the third on spiritual dimensions. Since scholarly literature is typically authored by researchers or experts aiming to contribute to knowledge in a specific field, it should be analyzed as an argument or communication within that particular social context. Nursing Essay Writing – Academic Arguments.
When analyzing a text, you can focus on three aspects: content, language, and structure (Kurland, 2002). When considering content, ask questions such as:
Who is the author addressing?
What is the author’s purpose?
What evidence supports the author’s argument?
What is the context of the work?
When analyzing the structure of the argument, inquire about:
How the argument is constructed, i.e., what comes first?
Whether the points follow a logical sequence or timeline.
How the author divided the sections.
Whether the author presented a problem and its solution.
Whether a compare and contrast analysis was used.
Regarding language, examine:
The tone of the text.
Whether the word choice reveals any biases.
The clarity and strength of the language.
As you analyze the text, it’s essential to connect what you’re reading to what you already know. Are any points in conflict with your worldview or the perspectives of other respected scholars in the field? Is the text significant, and if so, what makes it so? Does it contribute meaningfully to the field? Nursing Essay Writing – Academic Arguments.
From my experience, it’s evident that the charge nurse plays a significant role in leadership, management, and coordination within the surgical environment. They act as mediators, bringing together all professionals involved in surgical procedures, and providing essential leadership to the nursing team. Nursing within the surgical setting encompasses various responsibilities that are crucial for ensuring patient well-being and recovery.
Inference
Inference is a fundamental aspect of the critical reading process as it involves making judgments and drawing conclusions. The ability to make accurate inferences has several benefits, including improved comprehension, increased engagement with the text, enhanced critical thinking, and a more robust thinking process.
An inference can be defined as the act of moving from one proposition, statement, or judgment considered true to another whose truth is believed to follow logically from the former. In a more comprehensive sense, it involves identifying and gathering the necessary elements to draw reasonable conclusions, forming conjectures and hypotheses, considering relevant information, and deducing the consequences that flow from various forms of representation.
In everyday communication, people make inferences without much conscious effort. For example, when a husband tells his wife, “do not forget the girls,” the wife may infer several things not explicitly stated, such as he is referring to their two daughters and that he’s reminding her to pick them up from somewhere. Inferences often require reading between the lines and rely on context and logical reasoning.
Making inferences in academic reading, especially when you don’t have a personal relationship with the author or intimate knowledge of their views, can be challenging and requires careful consideration. Authors aim to convey specific points, and readers must combine words, assess their relationships, and attempt to understand the underlying ideas or meanings. Readers rely on textual indicators, prior knowledge, and assumptions to make inferences. This process involves both intuition and deliberate thought.
It’s important to note that there is a distinction between a reasonable inference and a correct one. While reasonable inferences may be based on the text and prior knowledge, they may not always be correct. To ensure the accuracy of inferences, it’s essential to review the evidence and determine whether specific reasons can justify the conclusions drawn. Inferences are speculative but evidence-based, and it’s not uncommon for two people reading the same material to make different inferences.
Assumptions
An assumption is a statement or fact that is taken for granted, often bridging the gap between an argument’s stated evidence and its conclusion. While inferences and assumptions are not identical, they are closely related, as inferences often rely on assumptions.
Understanding assumptions is a crucial part of the critical reading process because it helps readers identify what holds an argument together, identify the strengths and weaknesses of an argument, and find potential points for critique. Identifying hidden assumptions can be challenging, especially when reading dense academic literature.
To identify assumptions, you can employ various strategies:
1. Evaluate the argument’s validity. Determine whether it is logically sound, and if not, consider what additional premises are needed to make it valid.
2. Look for gaps in the argument. Is there missing information that would explain how the author reached a specific conclusion?
3. Seek significant counterexamples to the author’s points. Identifying what the author may have overlooked can reveal hidden assumptions.
4. Assess the meanings ascribed to key terms and categories. Are these meanings reasonable and justified, or do they indicate biases?
Interpretation
The ultimate goal of the reading process is to understand the overall meaning of the text. While the author provides the words, it is the reader who assigns meaning to what is read. Interpretation involves making sense of or attributing meaning to something.
Interpretation includes:
– Comprehending and expressing the meaning or significance of various experiences, situations, data, events, judgments, conventions, beliefs, rules, procedures, or criteria.
– Recognizing and describing problems objectively without bias.
– Distinguishing between main ideas and subideas.
Interpretation is particularly important for graduate students who must process a large volume of reading and synthesize the ideas of multiple authors effectively. To interpret texts successfully, the ability to summarize is crucial. Summarizing each paragraph or key point is a step toward understanding the text’s overall meaning.
Additionally, interpreting a text involves drawing out the implications of the author’s arguments.
Implications
Implications are conclusions derived from facts. When connecting the text to the real world, it’s important to consider the potential consequences if the author’s views are accurate. However, this should be done cautiously to avoid falling into the trap of assuming that a specific action will result in a series of increasingly negative outcomes, known as the slippery-slope fallacy.
Implications can be valuable for critiquing or challenging arguments, making them an important aspect of critical reading. Identifying and highlighting implications begins with understanding the explicitly stated facts and the conclusions drawn by the author.
References
Facione, P. (2010). Critical thinking: What it is and why it counts. Retrieved from http://www.insightassessment.com/pdf_files/what&why2006.pdf
Kaplan, Inc. (2007). LSAT comprehensive program (2008 ed.). New York, NY: Kaplan Publishing.
Kurland, D. (2010). The fundamentals of critical reading and effective writing. Retrieved August 27, 2010 from http://www.criticalreading.com/criticalreadingthinkingtoc.htm. Nursing Essay Writing – Academic Arguments.
Paul, R. (1995). Why students and teachers do not reason well. In J. Wilson & A. J. A. Binker (Eds.), Critical thinking: What every person needs to survive in a rapidly changing world (3rd ed., pp. 151-178). Santa Rosa, CA: Foundation for Critical Thinking. Nursing Essay Writing – Academic Arguments.
Project for School Innovation. (n.d.). Making inferences from text: A vital skill for reading comprehension. Retrieved June 10, 2010 from http://www.psinnovation.org/files/documents/LSGIntro.doc
Developing Arguments
Understanding the structure of arguments is essential for effective critical reading and critique of various works. Arguments typically consist of two main components: the conclusion and the evidence.
For instance, consider the following simple argument:
– Premise: Socrates is human
– Conclusion: Socrates is mortal
In this example, the conclusion that Socrates is mortal is drawn from the premise that he is human, which is a valid conclusion since humans are indeed mortal. However, most arguments encountered in academic literature are more complex, with multiple reasons provided to support a central assertion, and the underlying assumptions may not be immediately apparent.
Here’s a slightly more intricate example:
– Main Conclusion: The United States should close Guantanamo (GITMO).
– Supporting Reason: Keeping GITMO open hurts the United States’s reputation in international affairs.
– Sub-Reason: By keeping GITMO open, the United States would be violating important principles of international law.
– Sub-Reason: Violating important principles of international law would hurt the United States’s reputation in international affairs, making it difficult for the country to lead.
– Sub-Sub-Reason: The United States’s diminished reputation would hinder its influence on international human rights policy.
In analyzing arguments critically, the key task is to assess whether the reasons provided effectively support the main point. For instance, it’s essential to ask whether violating international law by keeping GITMO open genuinely undermines the United States’s reputation.
Difference Between an Argument and an Explanation
It’s important to distinguish between an argument and an explanation in social science literature. An argument comprises assertions supporting a central claim, while an explanation describes circumstances or interprets given information. Explanations, though interesting and potentially accurate, cannot be used as evidence to support a claim. For example, explaining the increase in teen pregnancy by citing permissive media culture, willingness to take risks in sexual relations, or moral decline is not sufficient; empirical evidence is needed to support such claims.
Types of Arguments
Arguments can be categorized into two main types: inductive and deductive.
1. Deductive Arguments: In a deductive argument, the premises guarantee the truth of the conclusion. This means that if the premises are true, the conclusion must also be true. Deductive arguments often involve mathematical or definitional necessity, where the truth of the premises logically determines the truth of the conclusion.
2. Inductive Arguments: Inductive arguments provide sufficient reasons for a reader to believe that a conclusion is likely to be true. These arguments do not offer certainty but rather suggest that the conclusion is probably correct. In social science literature, many arguments are inductive as researchers seek to explain phenomena, use statistical data for inference, or establish causal relationships between variables.
Validity and Soundness
In the context of deductive arguments, validity and soundness are crucial concepts. A deductive argument is considered valid or invalid based on its logical structure, regardless of whether the premises are true or false. Validity means that if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true, but it does not guarantee the truth of the premises.
For example, the argument:
– All fish can run.
– Anything that can run can fly.
– Therefore, all fish can fly.
While both premises are false, the argument is valid because it follows a logically sound structure. Validity does not ensure the truth of the premises.
On the other hand, an argument is considered sound when it is both valid (logically structured) and has true premises. In the example:
– All fish have smooth skin.
– Anything with smooth skin can swim.
– Therefore, all fish can swim.
This argument is both valid and sound because the premises are true, and the argument follows a valid structure.
Inductive arguments, by contrast, are described as strong or weak based on the strength of the evidence provided to support the conclusion. A strong inductive argument suggests that the conclusion is probably true given the evidence, while a weak one does not provide strong support for the conclusion.
Evaluating Arguments
Critical reading involves evaluating the strengths and weaknesses of arguments. Graduate students are expected to critically assess what they read, which requires not only identifying potential flaws in arguments but also pinpointing why an argument may be weak.
In general, the stronger the claim, the stronger the evidence must be to support it. Strengthening and weakening arguments is a skill that both writers and readers must develop. Authors who master these skills can write persuasive material, and readers who master these skills can effectively critique such material.
One of the key steps in evaluating arguments effectively is identifying assumptions, which is crucial for assessing the strength of an argument.
Comparing & Contrasting
A compare and contrast paper discusses the similarities and differences between two or more topics. The paper should contain an introduction with a thesis statement, a body where the comparisons and contrasts are discussed, and a conclusion. Nursing Essay Writing – Academic Arguments.
Address Both Similarities & Differences
Because this is a compare and contrast paper, both the similarities and differences should be discussed. This will require analysis on your part, as some topics will appear to be quite similar, and you’ll have to work to find the differing elements.
Make Sure You Have a Clear Thesis Statement
Just like any other essay, a compare and contrast essay needs a thesis statement. The thesis statement should not only tell your reader what you will do, but it should also address the purpose and importance of comparing and contrasting the material.
Use Clear Transitions
Transitions are key in compare and contrast essays, where you will be moving frequently between different topics or perspectives.
Examples of transitions and phrases for comparisons: as well, similar to, consistent with, likewise, too
Examples of transitions and phrases for contrasts: on the other hand, however, although, differs, conversely, rather than. For more information, check out our transitions page. Nursing Essay Writing – Academic Arguments.
Structure Your Paper
Consider how you will present the information. You could present all of the similarities first and then present all of the differences. Nursing Essay Writing – Academic Arguments. Or you could go point by point and show the similarity and difference of one point, then the similarity and difference for another point, and so on.
Include Analysis
It is tempting to just provide summary for this type of paper, but analysis will show the importance of the comparisons and contrasts. For instance, if you’re comparing two articles on the topic of the nursing shortage, help us understand what this will achieve. Did you find consensus between the articles that will support a certain action step for people in the field? Did you find discrepancies between the two that point to the need for further investigation?
Make Analogous Comparisons
When drawing comparisons or making contrasts, be sure you are dealing with similar aspects of each item. To use an old cliché, are you comparing apples to apples?
Example of poor comparisons: Kubista studied the effects of a later start time on high school students, but Cook used a mixed methods approach. (This example does not compare similar items. It’s not a clear contrast because the sentence does not discuss the same element of the articles. It is like comparing apples to oranges.)
Example of analogous comparisons: Cook used a mixed methods approach, whereas Kubista used only quantitative methods. (Here, methods are clearly being compared, allowing the reader to understand the distinction.
Avoiding Logical Fallacies
Understanding logical fallacies is crucial for maintaining the integrity of arguments and scholarly writing. Logical fallacies are errors in reasoning that can undermine the credibility of an argument. They should be avoided in objective scholarly writing. Recognizing logical flaws in others’ arguments is also useful when conducting research or writing annotated bibliographies and literature reviews.
Key points to remember about logical fallacies:
Argument Structure: Every argument comprises three interdependent elements:
– Claim (thesis statement)
– Support (evidence)
– Warrant (assumption underlying the claim)
Example:
– Claim: The No Child Left Behind Act has led to an increase in high school student drop-out rates.
– Support: Drop-out rates in the US have climbed by 20% since 2001.
– Warrant: (Assumption) It’s undesirable for students to drop out.
Types of Claims:
1. Claims of Fact: Assertions about the existence of a particular condition or phenomenon. These are common in research writing.
Example: Japanese business owners are more inclined to use sustainable business practices than they were 20 years ago.
2. Claims of Value: Moral judgments about a phenomenon or condition.
Example: Unsustainable business practices are unethical.
3. Claims of Policy: Recommendations for actions or changes.
Example: Japanese carmakers should sign an agreement to reduce carbon emissions in manufacturing facilities by 50% by 2025.
Connected Elements: To be effective, all three elements of an argument (claim, support, and warrant) must be logically connected.
When critiquing arguments or constructing your own, it’s essential to watch for logical fallacies and ensure that your claims are well-supported and logically sound. Fallacies can weaken the persuasiveness and reliability of an argument, so being aware of them is an important skill in academic writing and research.
Fallacies
In different kinds of writing, logical fallacies can arise, though they are more common in persuasive writing than in explanatory or research-based content. Here are some prevalent types of fallacies that you might come across in your explanatory and research writing at Walden:
1. Begging the Question (Circular Reasoning):
– This fallacy happens when a part of a claim, expressed in slightly different words, is used to support the same claim.
– Example: “Special education students should not have to take standardized tests because these tests are intended for non-special education students.”
In this case, the author’s argument assumes what it’s trying to prove, creating a circular argument.
2. Hasty Generalization:
– This is a mistake of induction that occurs when a writer draws a conclusion based on limited or insufficient data.
– Example: “Two out of three patients who were given green tea before bedtime reported sleeping more soundly. Therefore, green tea might be used to treat insomnia.”
In this example, drawing conclusions about the effectiveness of green tea based on such a small sample size is problematic.
3. Sweeping Generalizations:
– This fallacy involves assuming that a specific conclusion derived from one situation applies universally to all situations and contexts.
– Example: “Research conducted at a private performing arts high school in a rural community suggests that all high schools, including public ones in inner-city settings, will have the same characteristics.”
Such generalizations can be misleading, as different contexts may yield different results.
4. Non Sequitur:
– This Latin term means “does not follow,” and it occurs when there is no true logical relationship, especially a cause-effect connection, between two ideas.
– Example: “Professor Berger has published numerous articles in immunology. Therefore, she is an expert in complementary medicine.”
In this case, knowledge of immunology doesn’t necessarily imply expertise in complementary medicine.
5. Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc:
– Another Latin term meaning “after this; therefore, because of this.” This fallacy arises when one assumes a cause-effect relationship simply because one event follows another chronologically.
– Example: “Drop-out rates increased the year after NCLB was passed. Therefore, NCLB is causing kids to drop out.”
Correlation does not imply causation, and other factors may contribute to both events.
6. False Dilemma (Black and White Fallacy):
– This occurs when a writer falsely presents a situation as having only two options when there may be multiple possibilities.
– Example: “Japanese carmakers must adopt green production practices, or Japan’s carbon footprint will reach crisis proportions by 2025.”
This oversimplification overlooks the complexity of the issue and assumes only two solutions when there may be more.
It’s important to be aware of these fallacies when analyzing arguments in various forms of writing. Recognizing logical flaws can help you become a more effective critic and writer, whether you’re working on literature reviews, annotated bibliographies, or article critiques. Furthermore, applying critical thinking to your own writing can lead to more compelling arguments, whether you’re crafting a dissertation prospectus or a brief discussion post.
Addressing Assumptions
When writing, it’s crucial to consider your reader’s knowledge base. Here are some questions to guide your decisions about what assumptions you can make regarding your reader’s understanding:
1. Common Definitions in Your Field:
– Do journals in your field share a common definition of the concept you’re discussing? Reviewing current journals can help determine common practices.
2. Potential Variations in Interpretation:
– Could the term or topic you’re addressing be understood differently by different readers? If so, provide a clear definition for clarity.
3. Contextual Awareness:
– Is the idea you’re discussing particularly relevant in your own environment? Don’t assume that all readers are familiar with your specific context.
4. Shared Beliefs and Perspective:
– Are you assuming that the reader already agrees with the importance of the issue you’re addressing? Be mindful that readers may have different perspectives, so avoid assuming shared beliefs.
5. Current Relevance:
– Is the term or idea you’re using still part of the current debate and practice, or has it fallen out of favor? Ensure that your vocabulary reflects current thinking.
Considering these questions can help you tailor your writing to your audience, making your content more accessible and effective.
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